John Tyman's Cultures in Context Series NEPAL RELIGION: Hinduism |
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John Tyman's Cultures in Context Series NEPAL RELIGION: Hinduism |
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| 075. Hinduism has no single historical founder, no unified system of belief, no single doctrine of salvation, and no centralized authority: but there are a series of holy books -- Veddas, Epics, and Puranas (ancient stories) -- that establish patterns for both worship and daily life. They are, however, written in Sanskrit, a classical Indian language now used only by scholars; so that ordinary people depend on priests to explain their meaning. |
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| 076. Familiarity with the the Ramayana and the Mahabharata epics is a sacred duty and helps a person progress towards liberation (moksha) from the cycle of existence in the present world. They comprise edited collections of folktales with the central theme of the world’s salvation and the continual war between good and evil in the universe. In one such story Krishna fell into a pond while playing. He was attacked by a cobra but triumphed over him. The women in the picture are wives of the snake, pleading that he not be killed. |
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| 077. ”Hinduism is not so much a system of beliefs as a way of life, a religious culture, a spiritual and intellectual quest and an intense identification with the myriad ways in which the sacred is present in India.” (Anna King, The World's Religions, p. 146) The spirit of their creator can be seen in all things, and among animals the cow is the most sacred -- because it symbolizes the life force of the Earth Mother. (Cattle in the middle of Kathmandu) |
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| 078. The search for purity and godlikeness, and the parallel need for individuals who were ritually clean to offer sacrifices to the gods, led to the hierarchical classification of people by occupation known as “the caste system”. The ritual specialists (Brahmans) came first, then warriors and rulers (Kshatriyas), next traders and farmers (Vaishyas), then servants and craftsmen (Sudras). (Brahman priests ensuring that food for a wedding feast is not contaminated) |
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| 079. Finally, outside the caste system altogether, came those who tanned animal skins and disposed of human excrement and were clearly “untouchable” (Harijans). Like Sudras they were barred from participation in the rituals decreed in the Veddas. (Spring from which Sudras and untouchables drew water at Ramja Thanti -- distant from that used by Brahmans) |
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| 080. Many Hindus will tell you that there can be but one god: but in practice, much as Christians speak of their god as “Father, Son and Holy Ghost”, so the god of the Hindus has three distinctly different personalities and different roles. Brahma (on the right) is the creator, the ground of our being, from whom the universe came forth. Vishnu, in the centre, is the preserver, and Shiva is the destroyer and reproducer. Each god may be shown with four arms, but Brahma also has four heads, symbolizing his all-seeing presence. Brahma’s consort is Saraswati, the goddess of learning. |
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| 081. Brahma is said to be the source of the four castes -- the priests from his mouth, the warriors from his arms, tradespeople from his thighs, and servants from his feet. |
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| 082. Posters like these are sold in bookstores to decorate the shrines which practising Hindus establish in their homes. You’ll see few images of Brahma, though, for he is seemingly taken for granted; and most Hindus in Nepal worship either Vishnu or Shiva ... or one or other of their avatars (or incarnations), since the gods appear on earth in different forms. |
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| 083. Vishnu and Shiva appear in various forms or avatars -- visible manifestations of their different attributes. They each have a consort (female partner), and they carry symbols which are clues to their identity. Vishnu (in the middle) is responsible for the preservation of the cosmos and its proper order, including the maintenance of dharma -- the natural law which defines the social, ethical and spiritual harmony of life. He carries a conch shell (among other things) and he can appear in any of 10 different incarnations. His consort is Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity. The King of Nepal was believed to be a reincarnation of Vishnu: but Vishnu is most often worshipped in his incarnation either as Rama or Krishna. |
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| 084. Rama is the brave, noble and virtuous hero of the Ramayana, in which with the help of the monkey god Hanuman he rescues his beautiful wife Sita from the clutches of Rawana, the evil king of Lanka. In this painting he appears between his wife and his brother Laxman, while the ever-faithful Hanuman is showing reverence to Rama’s sandals. Rama is worshipped as the ideal ruler and restorer of dharma. |
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| 085. Krishna is the much-loved fun-loving cowherd who plays a flute and flirts with the milkmaids, but remains faithful to his wife Radha. He is worshipped as the god of erotic mystical love but also as a child. In this story he is scolded by his foster-mother Yashoda for stealing curds and ghee. |
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| 086. Krishna was also a charioteer, and at the bottom of this picture, as an incarnation of the god Vishnu, he encourages his devotee Arjuna on the eve of a great battle, explaining that he is not just one person but, as Vishnu, has many forms. |
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| 087. Hanuman, the monkey god, and the commanding officer of the monkey people that helped Rama rescue Sita, is worshipped for his trustworthiness. In the story illustrated in this picture he brings the moon to his master, believing that it is made of cheese. |
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| 088. Shiva carries a trident (or trisul) -- a symbol of lightning. As the destroyer he is the god most feared, and probably features more than any other god in the lives of people here. It is important to keep him on side. By reason of his creative role as lord of procreation, however, Shiva is usually represented at temples by a phallic lingam carved in stone. In this picture the power of the invocation “Om” radiates from his hand. |
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| 089. A Hindu god’s consort or shakti often symbolizes part of his personality, his worst part in some cases! It is Parvati in her avatar as Kali or Durga who oversees Shiva’s destructive activities and demands blood sacrifices ... of male animals only. The great festival of Dasain, during which many thousands of animals and birds in Nepal are sacrificed annually, is celebrated in her honour. |
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| 090. The practice of blood sacrifice is derived from an ancient Veddic tradition and though often neglected in India now, is still common in Nepal. It honours the god before whom the blood is shed but it also gives an “unfortunate brother” release from imprisonment as an animal, and the opportunity for rebirth as a man. |
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| 091. Ganesh is probably the most popular Hindu god, as the bringer of wisdom and prosperity. His father was Shiva and his mother was Parvati. Returning home after a long trip Shiva found his wife in bed with a young man. Failing to realize that his son must have grown up during his absence, Shiva chopped off the young man’s head. He was forced by Parvati to bring his son back to life but could only do so by giving him the head of the first living thing he saw ... which happened to be an elephant! The black stone at Parvati’s feet is a phallic lingam. |
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| 092. Stories of monkey gods and of a god with the face of an elephant seem strange to Westerners ... at first: but I can remember being raised in England on tales of saints who slew dragons, and knights who snatched helpless princesses from the jaws of death. And these were read to me for much the same reason as epics are read to Hindu children -- to develop a value system that honours nobility and purity, together with pride in one’s country. |
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| 093. To attain salvation (moksha) people must endure cycles of birth and rebirth, with all that goes with it -- dissatisfaction, suffering, pain and death, as well as fleeting pleasures -- before they are reborn. Sai Baba, for example, a guru or spiritual teacher (who died recently) established a religion of his own, and was worshipped as the reincarnation of an Indian holy man who was born in 1838, died in 1918 and was reborn in 1926. Sadly Sai Baba did not follow his own teaching (for he was found to have hoarded gold and precious stones worth billions of dollars) but his slogan “Love All, Serve All” enriched the lives of 50 million followers worldwide. |
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| 094. With each rebirth a Hindu moves either closer to or further away from spiritual salvation. The direction in which anyone progresses depends on his/her karma -- for laws of cause and effect apply to our actions. Bad actions during this life are bad karma and will result in reincarnation at a lower point on the scale ... may be as an untouchable or as a dog or a goat. In contrast, if your actions have been noble you will enjoy reincarnation at a higher level and come a step closer to the moksha which will free you from this cycle of rebirths. Fortunately, bad karma can be overcome by devotion to a deity. (Goat awaiting sacrifice during festival of Little Dasain) |
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| 095. The idea that one can begin over again ... and again ... through the process of reincarnation, is what keeps the Hindu caste system a powerful influence on life even today. Devout Hindus believe that they must accept and act according to their station in life, no matter what it may be -- knowing that if they live well they will be rewarded in their next life. (Occupational caste : village blacksmith) |
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| 096. Unlike Vishnu, Shiva has just two avatars -- the destructive Bhairab and the peaceful Pashupati, lord of beasts and keeper of all living things. His temple at Pashupatinath outside Kathmandu is the most important Hindu temple in Nepal. Though Shiva is often bloodthirsty, he is more gracious when he appears as Pashupati, so no animals are sacrificed here -- and no leather, since it comes from cows -- is allowed inside the temple. Pilgrims either go barefoot or wear rubber thongs. (Gateway at Pashupatinath) |
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| 097. Situated on the holy Bagmati River (which eventually joins the Ganges) the temple at Pashupatinath is a focus for pilgrims who come with offerings which demonstrate their reverence for Shiva ... whose presence is signified by a series of stone phalluses. Women come here at the end of their menstrual cycles to purify themselves, changing into new saris afterwards. It is a place for ritual bathing and also for cremation. (Woman pays tribute to stone phallus) |
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| 098. Hindus are not buried in the earth when they die. They are burnt, if possible on funeral pyres beside the sacred River Ganges or one of its tributaries, and their ashes are consigned to the river. In this way the spirit of the deceased is freed for reincarnation. The corpse will be spun around several times before it is burned, to confuse its spirit so it cannot later find its way back into the same body. The round burning ghats (platforms) in front of the temple were reserved for royalty. The square ones are for commoners. [See Video Extract 31] |
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| 099. Prior to its cremation the body will be wrapped in a yellow shroud because this is the colour ascribed to Shiva; and it will be encircled seven times by those paying their respects. The ritual of cremation can properly be performed only by sons of the deceased, which explains why the first need of any newly married couple is for boys rather than girls. If no son is available the family will need to hire a man to do the job. (Body prior to its preparation) |
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| 100. The corpse will be screened while it is prepared. The man in the background being dressed in white is the eldest sone (or a substitute). Among Brahmans the deceased will be mourned for 13 days by surviving members of the family. Sons will eat only once each day, abstain from eating salt, oil, meat, and pulses: and, since they are ritually polluted, they will prepare their own meals and may not offer food or water to any person who is not in mourning: nor may they go to a temple and make offerings to a god. A man will have all hair shaved from his body, and wear just a white loincloth and headscarf, and no red tika on his forehead. Daughters will go without salt etc. and have just one meal each day, but for five days only. |
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| 101. After the body has been placed on the pyre, water, rice and ghee will be placed in the mouth of the deceased, and the pyre will be covered in damp straw to ensure a slow burn. |
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| 102. The cremation of Brahmans and Chetris should be supervised by a priest, who will receive as gifts the food, clothing, furniture, and cooking pots considered necessary for the deceased in the next life. Other castes may employ a male relative to ensure that the rituals are completed correctly. |
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| 103. The town of Devghat in the foothills of the Terai lies at the junction of the Sapta Gandaki and Krishna Gandaki, which are also tributary to the Ganges. It is one of the holiest places in Hindu mythology and home to many temples. It is also the site of a refuge for widows waiting to die. A wealthy Hindu sadhu sold her house and land and used the money to finance the building two more temples and a refuge for women -- at a site admirably suitable for cremations. Meanwhile they spend much time in worship. [See Video Extract 28] |
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| 104. Many Hindus believe that the power of a deity is actually present in that deity’s image, which means that when devotees stand before an image they offer worship both to the deity whose power is in the image and also to the deity as an image. This explains the obvious devotion of those offering puja at shrines large and small -- where gods are treated as honoured guests as offerings are made to their images. (Offering puja to Krishna) |
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| 105. Puja is the act of showing reverence to a god, or aspect of the divine, through invocations, prayers, songs, and ritual offerings -- in anticipation that the devotee will receive a blessing in return. Puja is performed in the home daily, in temple ceremonies, at festivals, and on special occasions such as the beginning of a new enterprise. In acts of puja the deity who is being addressed is invited to attend the occasion, offerings are made and, later, part of the offerings are returned to persons present -- most commonly in the giving of tikas. (Men with puja offering dishes at shrine) |
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| 106. Most Hindu homes have an area reserved for worship, inside or out, where puja is offered daily to family and personal deities. It typically involves offerings of light (from a lamp), water and incense, flowers or fruit, plus the sound of a bell, accompanied by the chanting of a mantra proclaiming the sacred syllable “Om” typifying the Hindu trilogy of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. (Home of my friend’s sister-in-law in Kathmandu) [See Video Extract 27] |
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| 107. Elaborate pujas are performed by priests in temples several times a day, against a background of devotional singing. But ordinary men and women also visit such shrines with offerings of rice, flowers and red powder which they scatter over images of the gods they wish to honour. (In garden of temple at Kalika Mandir) |
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| 108. Since people may also drape garlands of flowers over their favourite deities the area around major shrines is usually crammed during festivals with stall-holders offering garlands and other ritual objects for sale. |
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| 109. Where there is no temple close-by, people may satisfy their deities by scattering rice, flower petals and vermillion powder over a rock or tree that in their mind is a manifestation of the sacred. (Site of shrine to Bikram Baba) |
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| 110. Afterwards they will mix the powder and the rice with clay or yoghurt and apply this to their foreheads, between their eyes, marking themselves (and family members) with a tika which signifies the divine presence. I was honoured in this way during the Feast of Little Dasain. |
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